Rebuilding without a state, 1991 to 2012
The 2001 Somaliland constitutional referendum
On 31 May 2001 Somaliland held a referendum on a new constitution whose first article asserted Somaliland's independence. There was no voter register. Officials put the number of voters at about 1.3 million and said 97 percent approved. Puntland and the Transitional National Government in Mogadishu opposed the vote as a breach of the 1960 Act of Union, and the OAU said it could not support anything affecting Somalia's unity. The constitution introduced multi-party elections, limited to three national parties.
In short
"On 31 May, the 'Somaliland' administration carried out a referendum on a new constitution. The first article of the constitution asserted the independence of 'Somaliland', while other articles made new provisions for political parties and elections," the UN Secretary-General reported (UN Security Council, S/2001/963, para. 18).
"There was no electoral register but the estimated number of voters was put at 1.3 million and officials claimed that 97 per cent of the voters endorsed the constitution" (same source, para. 19). For the 1991 declaration, see the Burao conference and Somaliland's declaration.
The vote
From the UN report (S/2001/963, paras. 18–19):
- Opposition. "The 'Puntland' administration, as well as the TNG [Transitional National Government], opposed the referendum on the grounds that it violated the Act of Union of 1960." See independence and union, 1960.
- Observers. "Although the referendum was peaceful, it was largely avoided by the international community."
- The OAU. A week before the vote, the Secretary-General of the Organization of African Unity, Salim A. Salim, said the OAU "could not support any action that would affect the unity and sovereignty of Somalia".
- Recognition. After the vote, President Mohamed Haji Ibrahim Egal "called on the international community to recognize 'Somaliland'".
What the constitution set up
- Parties. Article 9 allows exactly three national political parties. New political associations compete for those places every ten years in a vote held alongside local elections (University of Tartu, De Facto States Research Unit, 2024).
- Parliament. Two houses: an elected House of Representatives and a House of Elders (Guurti) whose members are "appointed by kinship groups" (International Election Observation Mission, 2018, p. 16).
- First party. In early July 2001 Egal formed a new party, the Allied People's Democratic Party (UDUB), "in preparation for parliamentary and presidential elections expected in 2002" (S/2001/963, para. 20).
For the elections held under it, see elections in Somaliland and the 2003 presidential election.
After the vote, 2001
From the UN report (S/2001/963, paras. 20–21):
- 18 July 2001. After a five-day meeting in Burao, some elders said UDUB was unconstitutional and called for it to be disbanded. "Another larger group of elders refuted the allegation."
- Impeachment motion. The same day, members of parliament tabled a motion to impeach Egal for "financial mismanagement and high treason, claiming that he had failed to pursue secession effectively". It was rejected in August.
- Mass graves. In March 2001 Egal asked the UN to investigate "what he alleged was genocide carried out in parts of 'Somaliland' by the former Barre regime", including mass graves found in Hargeisa. See the Isaaq genocide, 1987–1989.
Who suffered?
- People in the east of Somaliland's claimed territory who rejected its rule. The UN recorded that Puntland opposed the vote (S/2001/963). See North Eastern State.
Sources differ
- The turnout and result. With no voter register, the 1.3 million voters and the 97 percent yes vote were figures given by Somaliland officials (S/2001/963).
- Its legal effect. Somaliland's government holds that the referendum confirmed the 1991 declaration. The TNG, Puntland and the OAU held that Somalia's unity under the 1960 Act of Union stands.
Read the primary sources yourself
- UN Secretary-General, report on Somalia, S/2001/963 (11 October 2001), paras. 18–21: PDF.
Sources
- UN Security Council, S/2001/963, para. 18 · documents.un.org
- University of Tartu, De Facto States Research Unit, 2024 · defactostates.ut.ee
- International Election Observation Mission, 2018, p. 16 · discovery.ucl.ac.uk
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Where it happened
- Boorama (Borama) and AwdalAwdal is the far north-west region, on the borders with Djibouti and Ethiopia, with Borama (Boorama) as its capital and about 300,000 to 636,000 people.
- Hargeysa (Hargeisa) and Woqooyi GalbeedWoqooyi Galbeed is the north-western region that holds Hargeisa (Hargeysa) and the port of Berbera, with about 1 to 1.45 million people.
- Laascaanood (Las Anod) and SoolSool is a region in the north with Las Anod (Laascaanood) as its capital and about 571,000 people.
- Ceerigaabo (Erigavo) and SanaagSanaag is a region on the northern coast with Erigavo (Ceerigaabo) as its capital and about 446,000 people.
Same era
- Australia18,401 people of Somali ancestry and 8,101 born in Somalia lived in Australia at the 2021 Census, more than half in Victoria. History, work, issues.
- Birmingham (Somali diaspora)About 17,000 to 21,600 Somalis live in Birmingham (Census 2021), mostly in Nechells, Newtown, Small Heath and Alum Rock. History, work, health and ties home.
- Bristol (Somali diaspora)9,167 people in Bristol identified as Somali or Somalilander in Census 2021, the city's largest minority group. Where they live, work, housing, leaders and ties home.
- Calgary, Alberta, Canada2,845 people of Somali origin lived in Calgary at the 2021 Census, plus 890 in Brooks. How they came, who serves them and what they face.
- Denmark (Somali diaspora)21,885 people of Somali origin lived in Denmark in 2026, half born there. Numbers, history, work, permit reviews, and ties home.
- DjiboutiAbout 13,900 refugees from Somalia live in Djibouti (Aug 2026): numbers since 1990, Ali Addeh, Holl-Holl, the 2017 refugee law, Arta 2000 and 2025 returns.
Keep reading
- The Somali Civil WarThe Somali Civil War from the 1980s to now: the rebel fronts, the fall of Siad Barre, the split of Mogadishu, famine, the UN years, the Islamic Courts and al-Shabaab.
- The Somalia Reconciliation and Restoration Council (SRRC), 2001–2004The SRRC, the Ethiopian-hosted alliance against Somalia's Arta government: its founding in 2001, its refusal to recognise the TNG, its fighting, and its part in the Kenya talks.
- The Burao conference and Somaliland's declaration, May 1991The Burao conference of 1991 and the declaration of the Republic of Somaliland: who attended, what was decided, the first government, and the first year after.
- The Transitional Federal Parliament, 2004–2012Somalia's Transitional Federal Parliament from 2004 to 2012: how members were chosen by clan, the first sessions in Nairobi and Baidoa, the 2009 expansion, the Kampala Accord and the handover.
- UNOSOM I, 1992–1993: the first UN operation in SomaliaUNOSOM I, April 1992 to March 1993: the Mogadishu ceasefire, the observers and the Pakistani battalion, the famine, the looting of aid, and the turn to UNITAF.
- The UN and US intervention, 1992–1995: UNOSOM and UNITAFUNOSOM I and II and the US-led UNITAF, 1992–1995: the famine, the missions, the 5 June and 3 October 1993 battles, the civilian toll, and the withdrawal.